Studying Narrative: Class Notes

Defining 'Narrative'
The word narrative essentially refers to ‘story’.

Narratology is the study of narratives/stories (and their structures and recurring character types).


Narrative:

• Common to all forms of storytelling (literature, documentaries, fairy tales, history books, biographies).
• Narratives can also be found in painting, mythology and theatre.

How do we study narratives?
The study of narratives involves examining the codes and conventions (traditional ways of doing things) that are used to tell stories.

Most narratives in Hollywood films strive to attain a level of realism (or verisimilitude) in order for audiences to identify with the events taking place on screen.


Narrative & Diegesis
In the 1980s, Gérard Genette distinguished between narrative, narrating and diegesis.

• Narrating refers to the actual act of telling the story (e.g. a voice-over telling us the story).
• Narrative = story.
• Diegesis = to the relationships between the events that make up the story (the causal relationships between events, or the ‘plot’).

The modernist author E. M. Forster made a similar distinction between ‘story’ and ‘plot’ (or ‘diegesis’). For Forster, plot differs from story in the way in which it establishes a causative relationship between events: whereas a story is a description of events, a plot seeks to explain how the events impact on one another.

Forster's example of a story was 'The King died, and then the Queen died'; his example of a plot was 'The King died, and then the Queen died of grief'.


What function does narrative serve for us as spectators?
When we watch a film, we use our experience of similar narratives to try to guess the ending of the film.

We usually expect narratives to be based on cause-and-effect logic (i.e. one event causes the next event, which causes the next event), and to possess a clear beginning, middle and end. These types of narrative are described as linear narratives.


Approaches to Narratology
How are narratives structured?
One of the key figures in the study of narrative is the early-Twentieth Century Russian Formalist Tzvetan Todorov.
Todorov argued that narratives usually start at a point of stable equilibrium (i.e. everything is calm, and under control).
This equilibrium suffers a disruption: something happens that threatens the characters.
The heroes take action against the threat, and at the end of the film the equilibrium is restored and the narrative reaches its resolution.

The basic formula for a narrative, then, is equilibrium—disruption—restoration of equilibrium/resolution.
However, the equilibrium at the end of the narrative is usually different from the equilibrium at the start of the film, very often because the characters have learnt something along the way.

Can you identify the equilibrium—disruption—resolution narrative chain in a recent Hollywood film?


Narratives and Sequences
Film narratives can be broken down into sequences.
Each sequence contains its own mini-narrative; its own equilibrium—disruption—resolution narrative chain.

Sequence Length
In Hollywood films, sequences usually last for between 5 and 10 mins;
An average Hollywood movie (90-120mins) will contain about 25 to 30 sequences.

Sequences in European or Asian cinema can last much longer;
You may find that European and Asian movies contain fewer sequences and work at a much slower pace than Hollywood movies.


Narrative and Character Types
In the 1920s, another Russian Formalist named Vladimir Propp argued that most narratives contained eight key character types
(examples from The Matrix, 1999):

• The Hero (Anderson/Neo)
• The Villain (The Matrix/The Agents)
• The Donor (gives something to the Hero that helps him complete his quest) (The Oracle, or Morpheus)
• The Helper (the Hero’s ‘assistant’) (Tank)
• The Princess (the ‘love interest,’ who often has to be rescued) (Trinity)
• Her Father (an authority figure to the Princess) (Morpheus)
• The Dispatcher (the person who sends the Hero on his quest) (Morpheus again)
• The False Hero (somebody who appears to be a second Hero, but is in fact a Villain, or is defeated by the Villain part-way through the narrative) (Cypher)

Propp also argued that many narratives possess a structure similar to the following:

1. 'A member of a family leaves home (the hero is introduced);
2. An interdiction is addressed to the hero ('don't go there', 'go to this place');
3. The interdiction is violated (villain enters the tale);The villain makes an attempt at reconnaissance (either villain tries to find the children/jewels etc; or intended victim questions the villain);
4. The villain gains information about the victim;
5. The villain attempts to deceive the victim to take possession of victim or victim's belongings (trickery; villain disguised, tries to win confidence of victim);
6. Victim taken in by deception, unwittingly helping the enemy;
7. Villain causes harm/injury to family member (by abduction, theft of magical agent, spoiling crops, plunders in other forms, causes a disappearance, expels someone,
8. casts spell on someone, substitutes child etc, comits murder, imprisons/detains someone, threatens forced marriage, provides nightly torments); Alternatively, a member of family lacks something or desires something (magical potion etc);
9. Misfortune or lack is made known, (hero is dispatched, hears call for help etc/ alternative is that victimised hero is sent away, freed from imprisonment);
10. Seeker agrees to, or decides upon counter-action;
11. Hero leaves home;
12. Hero is tested, interrogated, attacked etc, preparing the way for his/her receiving magical agent or helper (donor);
13. Hero reacts to actions of future donor (withstands/fails the test, frees captive, reconciles disputants, performs service, uses adversary's powers against them);
14. Hero acquires use of a magical agent (directly transferred, located, purchased, prepared, spontaneously appears, eaten/drunk, help offered by other characters);
15. Hero is transferred, delivered or led to whereabouts of an object of the search;
16. Hero and villain join in direct combat;
17. Hero is branded (wounded/marked, receives ring or scarf);
18. Villain is defeated (killed in combat, defeated in contest, killed while asleep, banished);
19. Initial misfortune or lack is resolved (object of search distributed, spell broken, slain person revivied, captive freed);
20. Hero returns;
21. Hero is pursued (pursuer tries to kill, eat, undermine the hero);
22. Hero is rescued from pursuit (obstacles delay pursuer, hero hides or is hidden, hero transforms unrecognisably, hero saved from attempt on his/her life);
23. Hero unrecognised, arrives home or in another country;
24. False hero presents unfounded claims;
25. Difficult task proposed to the hero (trial by ordeal, riddles, test of strength/endurance, other tasks);
26. Task is resolved;
27. Hero is recognised (by mark, brand, or thing given to him/her);
28. False hero or villain is exposed;
29. Hero is given a new appearance (is made whole, handsome, new garments etc);
30. Villain is punished;
31. Hero marries and ascends the throne (is rewarded/promoted).'

Quoted from: Jerry Everard, Year Unknown: 'Introduction to Vladimir Propp'. [Online] URL: http://mural.uv.es/vifresal/Propp.htm

Homework:
a) Research definitions of some terms associated with semiotics (sign, icon, index, symbol)
b) Watch one film: identify the equilibrium—disruption—resolution chain; describe and discuss the e—d—r chain in one sequence; and identify as many of Propp’s eight character types as possible. (2 sides of A4.)

©Paul Andrew Julian Lewis, 2005